Heraclea 280 BC, The Battle, Before and After

Michal Pisko

The spectacular battle of Heraclea which arose in the year 280 BC was a mere portent of the following century. The century marked by the rapid growth and expansion of the Roman republic, century forever signed by the numerous bloody battles, century that gave the history world-famous names of Greek, Carthaginian and Roman generals and the well-known conflict of the Antic world, the Punic wars. The two almost equivalent, yet diametrically diverse, armies clashed by the costal town of Heraclea. The core of the Greek allied army formed heavily armored hoplites, fighting in tight phalanx formation. On the other hand, Romans counted on the loose and flexible check-board set out of the manipular formation.

Though the first conflicts between the very different military organization schemes gave bitter victories (Pyrrhic victories) of the phalanx formation, the legion superiority under the command of skilled generals gradually proved. However, the Greeks and Macedonians traditionally and commonly accepted opinion that the victories in the Greek-Persian wars and many battles of Alexander the Great were achieved only due to the phalanx. For that reason they did not alter their tactical attitude, in spite of the obvious drawbacks of the phalanx. They foolishly believed in the strength of the phalanx up to the fatal decisive battles of Kynoskephalai (197 BC) and Pydna (168 BC).

Pyrrhus

Pyrrhus was born in the year 318 BC as the only son and successor of Aeacides, the king of Epirus. Revolt against his father broke out soon after his birth and Pyrrhus' father have been killed by his enemies. The young Pyrrhus have been saved by the loyal servants and carried out to shelter. Glaucias, the king of Illyria, granted them a safe hold. Glaucias, having seen a good sign of fortune upon their arrival, brought Pyrrhus up with his own children and refused to surrender Pyrrhus even to Cassander (the leader of the rebellion in Epirus) offering two hundred talents for his head.

The time passed and Pyrrhus grew up. Glaucias had been so convinced about Pyrrhus' deity that he placed Pyrrhus back to the throne of Epirus by means of his own army. Pyrrhus became, in the age of only twelve, the king of Epirus. The whole Pyrrhus' life could be considered as a big seesaw. Once up and then down again! When he was seventeen years of age, he left Epirus just for a few days to participate at the wedding of one of Glaucias' sons. His enemies immediately conspired yet another uprising and the young king had been expelled from his homeland once again. The helpless Pyrrhus turned to Demetrius, husband of Pyrrhus' sister Deidamia.

Pyrrhus took part with Demetrius in the battle of Ipsus (301 BC) and highly signalized himself by bravery and combat skills. Upon articles of agreement made between Demetrius and Ptolemy, Pyrrhus went as a hostage into Egypt. Pyrrhus attracted Ptolemy by his courage and skills and received in reward Antigone for his wife, one of the Ptolemy's stepdaughters. Pyrrhus, supplied by Ptolemy with fleet and soldiers, returned back to his homeland to claim his heirloom.

After many pitfalls, he rested on the throne of Epirus once again. From that moment on he began to intrigue many plans and dreams that inevitably led him to direct conflict with Demetrius. No less than Macedonian throne were in stakes. After the many years of waging a war Pyrrhus made it to the Macedonian king. He became one of the most favorite rulers of his age, nicknamed Epirotean eagle. However, the Macedonian throne was not his lot. After a short reign he had been forced to retreat back to Epirus with a bare handful of loyal soldiers. He was gifted by fortune the chance to rule his small kingdom in a relative peace. But in his mind he was somewhere else, hunting his phantasms of victory and glory.

Rome

The Roman republic slowly but steadily extended and consolidated it's position on Apennine peninsula. The collision with Greek and Carthaginian colonies located in southern regions of peninsula and Sicily inevitably drew closer and closer. The biggest and strongest of the Greek city states in the south of Apennine peninsula was Tarentum. Other Greek colonies admired Tarentum and considered it to be their foremost and leading city. The initial quarrels between Rome and Greek colonies had been terminated by treaty about respecting mutual interests of both sides. Fragile treaty that should not last forever?

In the year 283 BC new problems arose. Some of the Greek cities, endangered by the increasing attacks of Lucanians and Bruttians, distrusting Tarentum, appealed to Rome for help. Romans did not hesitate and sent a prompt help. The Tarentines considered this act as a formal breach of the peace treaty. Sharp oppose against Rome, arresting of several Roman citizens and humiliation of Roman ambassador came soon afterwards. The Rome declared war. Tarentines lost their head, enraged other Greek cities against Rome and prepared for war.

It was not uncommon for the city-states of Magna Graecia to appeal for help from some of the mercenary kings and armies back in their homeland. Tarentines sought help of Pyrrhus and sent an ambassador to Epirus. The ambassador promised Pyrrhus huge military support of Lucanian, Samnites and Tarentines allies totaling 20000 cavalry and 350000 infantry! The assurance of such a grand army not only convinced but outright bewitched Pyrrhus. Pyrrhus did not accept the plead for help from any charitable motives or patriotism. As indicated in Pyrrhus' dialog with his friend Cineas, Pyrrhus' motives grounded just in the phantasm of power, dreams about a great empire of the west, equal in power and magnificence to the eastern Ptolemaic and Seleucid empires. The dreams seemed to be so realistic! How wrong he was!

First, Pyrrhus sent to Tarentum Cineas accompanied by 3000 soldiers. Soon afterwards, many ships from Tarentum arrived to Epirus and Pyrrhus embarked his army. The only records about the strength and composition of his army are included in Plutarch - 3000 cavalry, 20000 infantry, 2000 Cretan archers, 500 Rhodian slingers and 20 war elephants.

Units and tactics

Pyrrhus' army fundamentally did not differ from standard armies of other Greek city-states. Such armies copied to considerable extent the composition and organization of army of Fillip the Macedon and his son, Alexander the Great. The core of the army formed heavily armored hoplites, fighting in tight phalanx formation. The strength and tenacity of phalanx made an excellent springboard for swift and decisive charges of exceptionally trained cavalry units, supported by mobile light infantry units. Indispensable part of all 'Successors' armies' formed the war-elephants, which are said to play a decisive role in Pyrrhus' victories.

The phalanx was a deep formation of heavy infantrymen fighting with long spears, pikes and swords. The equipment constituted of helmet, big round shield called hoplon (from which the infantry took the name hoplites), grieves and different kinds of body armor. Some of the soldiers were rich enough to buy a metal armor, the others wore armor made form leather or several layers of linen. The history witnessed many smaller and bigger adjustments in hoplites' outfit. In the end, the trend of lengthening the pike up to unbelievable seven meters prevailed! Up to four ranks of spear points could stick out through the front of the unit. The enemies using shorter weapons were no threat when fighting the phalangites from the front. However, manipulation with such a long pike (sarissa) was very difficult and thus the phalanx became almost immobile, unable to maneuver and react. Many times, the enemies got around the phalanx and attacked from the vulnerable flank or rear. Most of the time, hoplites were formed in a march-order square 16x16 men unit (syntagma). Just before the crash with enemy unit, the hoplites 'locked shieldes', i.e. the phalanx closed to 8 ranks deep formation. This tight formation made phalanx almost unbeatable from front, but very ponderous to move and maneuver.

A special attention should be given to the units of Greek (Macedonian) cavalry. The fighting style and equipment of these units significantly differed from standard cavalry units of the third century BC. Whereas the most cavalry contingents preferred the hit-and-run strategy (attack with the javelins and bows from a considerable distance and fast retreat from the thread), Macedonian cavalry was specially trained to break the enemy lines by a determined charge and decisive hand-to-hand combat. It is assumed that the units of King's companions could even break through the phalanx bristling with the spear tips. Perhaps the most famous units were the Companions (hetairoi) and Thessalian horsmen. Whereas the Companions preferred the wedge formation, Thassalian horsmen developed unique diamond shaped formation, rhomboid, with commander at each apex. Rhomboid enabled the unit to suddenly change direction, even at high speed. All they had to do was to follow the second officer who now led the whole squadron. The cavalrymen were heavily armored, wearing bronze cuirass with pteryges and grieves and helmet. They were armed with xystons (three meters long spears) and swords. The cavalrymen were organized into units (ilai) of 200 men each.

Though the main weapon of Alexander the Great and his 'Successors' had been the cavalry, light infantry held an indispensable position when providing flexible link between fast moving cavalry and slow phalanx. The most famous light infantry units were Thracian peltasts. The name peltast comes from the shield that the Thracians used. The shield was made of osier and covered with leather, shaped like a partial moon. The peltasts were armed with several javelins. The light infantry units preferred loose formation. Centuries proved that phalanx have to be supported by light infantry and cavalry units. As an example may act the battle of Lechaien. During the battle superior Spartan hoplites were routed by determined attack of light infantry against unprotected flank of Spartan phalanx.

The 'Successors' armies' often hired mercenary units to fill the ranks. The most famous mercenaries fighting under Pyrrhus were Rhodian slingers and Cretan archers. Cretan archers were amongst the best from all the Greece. They used a composite bow but also carried a sword and shield (very unusual for archers). Even more, the Cretan archers were able to close into hand-to-hand combat. These units might have been distinguished on the battlefield by their red tunics.

Integral part of all 'Successors armies' were the war-elephants, which are said to play a decisive role in Pyrrhus' victories. The main advantages of elephants were their size and their terrifying appearance. The elephants were very useful against cavalry units. The horses at the sight of elephants and trumpeting of elephants pranced and disobeyed their masters. The attack power of the elephants was even more increased by placing the battle towers on the back of them. The tower could hold two, and later up to four, men. War elephants were extremely dangerous yet also very unpredictable unit. Wounded elephants broke many times from combat and drove through friendly units, causing many loses and chaos.

About the year 280 BC the Roman army began to acquire the look and shape in which it achieved the most spectacular victories and dominated the Old World. A standard consular army (led by consul) consisted of four Roman legions and four allied legions (legions formed in conquered provinces). A unit of roughly 300 cavalrymen supported each of the legions. The army organization was based on regiments of 120 men, maniples. Legion advanced in four lines with check board layout of maniples.

The light infantry, velites, formed the first line of legion (1200 men). Velites were the youngest and poorest soldiers that could not afford expensive armament. They advanced in a loose formation throwing javelins in order to disrupt enemy lines. After expending all javelins they retired through the gaps between the maniples of the next line and did not participate in battle anymore.

The first real close combat line formed ten maniples of hastati. Excellent both in training and armament. Hastati defended with a large oval shield and equipped helmet, bronze cuirass and greaves. They marched into battle with two pila and sword. In 280 B. C., the Roman army had not yet accepted the shot Spanish sword (gladius hispanicus), that later became inseparable element of legionnaire's armament. Roman hastati used special heavy throwing spears called pila. The sharp iron tip of pilum was connected with heavy wooden haft by a thin shaft made from pliable iron. The shaft was designed to bend rather than break when penetrating an enemy shield. The pilum hang on the shield, weighing down the soldiers arm. Legionnaires threw their pila 20 paces away from the enemies in order to disorganize and weaken them. After that legionnaires drew their swords and closed into melee.

The next line formed ten maniples of principes. Principes were equipped alike hastati. Principes defended with a large oval shield and equipped helmet, bronze cuirass and greaves. At the period of the battle of Heraclea, the pilum was not an ordinary equipment of all legionnaires. Principes thus fought with either spear or sword.

Triari formed the last line of the legion. The most seasoned soldiers, veterans. They were quite often left behind to guard a camp and thus did not participate in the battle at all. Triari have been equipped in exactly the same manner as Principes. Triari fought either with spear or sword. Each legion contained only half number of triati compared to the number of hastati or principes, 600 men. Many times, the units of triari were detached from legion and merged into larger units.

The battle began by the attack of velites. They loosed a hail of javelins against the enemies and then retired into rear ranks. The attack of hastati ensued. The enemies received the devastating shower of pila and then hastati closed up to melee. If the enemies were strong enough to withstand the attack of hastati, principes displaced hastati and renewed the attack. The triari had to fight only very rarely. The Roman infantry was superior in training, fighting skills and discipline. Only few enemies could withstand the determined attack of legionnaires.

The richest men usually ended in cavalry contingent, containing about 300 riders. The Roman cavalryman carried a round shield and a long spear. The main task of cavalry was to defend and protect the flanks of legion until the legionnaires cut their bloody path through the main body of enemy formation and grab the victory for Rome.

It is assumed that the Roman army on march recruited additional auxiliary units in allied provinces. On the other hand several units were certainly left behind in Luccania and Appulia on guard, to keep peace and discourage rebellion. Primarily, the units of light infantry and light cavalry were recruited.

Battle

Romans hastily assembled three armies and began to systematically crush the allies of Tarentum. Meanwhile Pyrrhus, despite of the bad weather, sailed over the Adriatic see and proudly marched through the gates of Tarentum. In Tarentum he experienced his first big disappointment. He found Tarentines totally unprepared for war, not able to defend themselves, much less their neighborhood allies. No support they had promised. Pyrrhus realized that Tarentines were not willing to fight on their own, unless some strong compulsion was used to them. Pyrrhus was forced to declare a martial law and began conscriptions. In fact, Pyrrhus declared himself a dictator. The primal enthusiasm of the Greeks vanished!

Soon after, Pyrrhus received intelligence that a consular army under the command of consul Publius Laevinius was plundering Lucania and threatening Heraclea, small coastal town yet important member of anti-Roman coalition. Even though the reinforcement from Lucanians and Samnites did not arrive (in fact no such reinforcements existed), Pyrrhus decided to act. He saw his first opportunity and believed that victory against such a grand consular army would convince other cities to rebel against Rome and join his forces. He gathered his forces and Tarentine conscripts and set the army on march.

Pyrrhus' army advanced and made a fortified camp on the plain between the cities of Pandosia and Heraclea, on the left bank of river Siris. Romans were so impressed with Pyrrhus' walled camp that they adopted it. The Romans encamped on the other side of the river. According to Plutarch, when Pyrrhus saw the enemy encampment he told his friend Magacles: "This order of the barbarians is not at all barbarian in character; we shall see presently what they can do." His words only confirm how scarce his initial information about the enemy he was up to face was. Pyrrhus now decided to be more careful and waited for the reinforcement. He deployed the units of light infantry along the river to repel any Roman attempt to cross the river.

Romans attack the advanced guards of Pyrrhus' army.

However, the Roman were unusually spirited and resolute to finish the invader once and for all. The next morning Consul Laevinius, eager to achieve victory at whatever costs, issued an order to cross the river and attack Pyrrhus' forces. He did not expect any problems. He expected to finish Pyrrhus' army as easy as he did before with Tarentines militia. While the infantry began to wade through the river, the cavalry was sent up and down the stream to ford the river and attack the advanced Greek guards from flanks. Under attack from three sides, the light infantry units fell back. Surprised Pyrrhus issued orders to form the phalanx and led the elite cavalry units to counterstrike enemy cavalry.

Cavalry counterstrike

Soon all of Pyrrhus' horsemen were thrown into the cavalry battle. Pyrrhus joined the battle, inspiring his troops, conspicuous by his rich and beautiful armor. The Roman captain named Oplacus tried to challenge Pyrrhus. Pyrrhus' aide Leonnatus noticed the attacker just in time to stop him. Pyrrhus decided to exchange his armor with Megacles. Megacles rejoined the battle and Greek cavalry held.

The phalanx charged the leading maniples of Roman army.

Meanwhile, the Romans secured the crossing over the river. The legionnaires were wading the river on many places and the outcome of the battle was at stake. Pyrrhus returned to his camp and brought the phalanx against the advancing Roman legions. Pyrrhus kept the elephants in reserve until crucial moments of battle. The phalanx swooped with frightening shout on the leading maniples. Phalangites received the barrage of pila and then closed against hastati. Cruel combat ensued, the battlefield turned into the wild bloody ocean of rolling waves. The combat between phalanx and legions was equal and a little bit helpless and confused. The Romans were frustrated because they could not break through the wall of pikes using their short swords. On the other hand, the phalangites were unable to pursue the defeated maniples for they would disrupt the compact formation and let the enemies penetrate their ranks.

The elephants defeat Roman cavalry.

The battle was even until a Roman officer Dexous killed Megacles and ripped his helmet off. Whilst the Roman cheered on the death of supposed Pyrrhus and renewed their attacks, the Greeks hesitated and started to fell back. Pyrrhus rode in front of his soldiers and took off his helmet for everybody to recognize him. His soldiers rallied and renewed the press against the legionnaires. Pyrrhus saw this as a decisive moment and called for the elephants. The Roman horses at the sight of elephants and trumpeting of elephants pranced and disobeyed their masters. The Roman cavalry fled the battlefield and Pyrrhus got supremacy on both wings. Thessalian horsmen charged the exposed flanks of the legions and soon all the main body of the Roman army turned to flee. Pyrrhus launched a pursuit. By chance one of the elephants was wounded, broke from combat and drove through the phalanx. The pursuit came to halt and most of the Romans escaped.

The break-up of the legions.

After the battle

Pyrrhus won but his army suffered heavy looses. Pyrrhus lost many of his veteran soldiers as well as many skilled and reliable officers, including some of his personal friends. The Romans were able to replace their looses promptly, Pyrrhus did not have a reliable source of new trained soldiers. According to Dionysius, 15000 Romans and 13000 on Pyrrhus' side fell. According to Hieronymus 7000 Romans and 4000 on Pyrrhus' side fell. A bitter victory that actually implicated the defeat. In memory of Pyrrhus' fight the expression 'Pyrrhic victory' became common.

Pyrrhus, just as many others, underestimated the endurance and persistence of Rome. He believed that a victory against Romans would convince other cities to rebel against Rome and join his forces. But no other cities broke alliance with Rome and only Lucanians and Samnites sided with Pyrrhus. The Romans knew how to get hold of the occupied provinces. They protected the residents against enemies and induced the development and growth. On the other hand, the Romans subdued and rebellion with fire and blood, enslaving the citizens and burning down the whole cities.

Just a short note about the years that had to come. I suppose that one day we would experience together another of Pyrrhus' great battles of antiquity. Pyrrhus did not receive the anticipated military support. Nevertheless, next year he engaged Romans in another battle near Asculum. Again, even though the Romans lost, Pyrrhus sustained such loss of troops that he could not long continue the war. If it were not the initiative of Carthaginians that offered Rome a military support against Pyrrhus, Cineas would have arranged a peace treaty with Rome. In state of brittle armistice Pyrrhus moved to Sicily to aid the Greeks there, who were being hard pressed by the Carthaginians. He almost conquered the whole island to loose it again in several following years. When the Romans renewed their attack against Tarentum and their allies, Pyrrhus returned to Italy only with a handful of his most faithful units. In the year 275 BC Romans finally defeated Pyrrhus in the battle of Beneventum. This made a short cut of Pyrrhus' dreams about the great empire of the west. He embarked his remaining forces and returned to Epirus. When leaving the Italian soil, Pyrrhus made almost prophetic speech: "What a battlefield I am leaving for Carthage and Rome!" Tarentum surrendered to Rome in 272 BC.

To be honest, Pyrrhus death was not as heroic as his life. He tried to conquer the Greece. According to one interpretation of Pyrrhus' death, a woman threw a roof tile on Pyrrhus' head when he was fighting in the narrow streets of Argos. He fell stunned from his horse and the enemy soldiers killed Pyrrhus with ease.

Materials:

• Plutach: Life of Pyrrhus
• http://www.barca.fsnet.co.uk/pyrrhic-war.htm

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